Toward the Development of Flexibly Adaptive Instructional Designs

Daniel L. Schwartz, Xiaodong Lin, Sean Brophy & John Bransford

Goals and preconditions. The primary goal of this theory is to teach a deep understanding of disciplines-while simultaneously fostering the skills of problem solving, collaboration, and communication-through the use of problem-based learning, followed by more open-ended project-based learning. No preconditions are identified for use of the theory.

Values. Some of the values upon which this theory is based include:

1. helping learners and teachers to understand the point of an instructional design feature, to facilitate effective adaptation of the instruction,
2. customizing instruction based on learners' initial domain knowledge,
3. instruction that provides several models for how to think about things,
4. methods used by teachers and learners that are constrained enough to be consistent with important principles of learning and instruction, but that are also flexible enough for teachers to be creative in tailoring instruction to their own strengths and their learners' and community's needs,
5. increasing learners' tolerance for ambiguity,
6. instruction that is anchored in meaningful, if not authentic, tasks,
7. goal setting, student-directed exploration, and revision in learning and instruction,
8. motivating learners by stimulating curiosity and aspirations, and motivating them to revise and improve their work,
9. helping students to see how much they have learned and to reflect on their growth.

Methods. These are the major methods this theory offers:

1. Look Ahead and Reflect Back Binoculars
   1. Provides an understanding of the goals, context, and challenges they will face.
   2. Provides an opportunity to try it right now (pretest).
   3. Provides a benchmark for reflection and self-assessment.
   4. Consists of a motivational series of images, narrative, and questions to be answered.
   5. Helps students represent a specific problem as an example of a larger set of issues.

   --------- Beginning of inquiry cycle

2. The initial challenge (beginning of the first inquiry cycle).
   1. Helps students develop a shared, initial mental model of what's to be learned.
   2. Challenge selection: Motivating/interesting, invites student-generated ideas.
   
   
3. Generate ideas (about issues and answers).
   1. Use a classroom notebook as a focal point for discussion.
   2. Purposes:
      1. Helps students make their own thinking explicit.
      2. Helps students see what other students are thinking.
      3. Encourages sharing of ideas in a class.
      4. Helps teacher assess current state of student knowledge.
      5. Provides students with a baseline to more easily see how much they learn.
   
   
4. Multiple perspectives (Present models representing ...)
   1. Provide a way to introduce students to vocabulary and perspectives of experts.
   2. Allow students to compare their ideas to experts' ideas.
   3. Provide expertise, guidance, models of social practice in the domain.
   4. Provide realistic standards of performance.
   5. Indicate that multiple perspectives exist in the domain.
   
   
5. Research and revise (to help students explore a challenge)
   1. Consult resources.
   2. Collaborate with other students.
   3. Listen to "just-in-time" lectures.
   4. Complete skill-building lessons.
   5. Look at legacies left by other students.
   6. Conduct simulations and hands-on experiments.
   7. Most resources are outside the STAR shell.
   
   
6. Test your mettle (formative assessment)
   1. When students feel ready for it.
   2. Wide variety of forms:
      Multiple-choice tests, essays, opportunity to test their designs, etc.
   3. Feedback suggests which resources to consult to reach target level of understanding.
      Check-list to evaluate their own essays and direct students to sections of Research & Revise.
   4. Feedback is motivational
   
   
7. Go public
   1. Two ways:
      1. Present their best solutions (electronic posting, multimedia presentation, oral presentation).
      2. Leave a Legacy of tips and ideas for future students (new multiple perspectives, resources, test your mettles).
   2. Criteria:
      1. Makes their thinking visible.
      2. Helps students learn to assess others and themselves.
      3. Helps set standards for achievement.
      4. Helps students learn from each other.
      5. Motivates students to do well (high stakes).
   3. Help students understand why going public is valuable to them.
   4. Have students reflect on the entire inquiry cycle.

   ------------ End of inquiry cycle

8. Progressive deepening
   1. Thematically related cycles of challenges that build on each other.
   2. Build to a more formal and more general level of understanding (of big ideas).
   3. Problem-based (decision) challenges before project-based (design) challenges.
   
   
9. General reflection and decisions about legacies.
   1. At the end of the third cycle.
      1. Return to the Look Ahead & Reflect Back to see how much they have learned.
      2. Especially important for situations that were confusing or frustrating.
      3. Shows the payoff of perseverance.
      4. Helps them decide what legacies will be most useful for others.
      5. Make a CD that contains their solutions and legacies, provides a review.
   2. Teachers should also leave legacies.
   
   
10. Assessment
    1. Provide Rationale Tips for each instructional design feature.
    2. Provide each learning event with a caption and description, to focus attention on instructional goals, emphasize the learning function. Conceptualize instructional design in terms of learning goals and events.

Major contributions. The development of a simple framework to support flexibly adaptive design. Much guidance for designing new programs. Proven methods developed through formative research.