Imagine a friend of yours, Jennifer, has just been hired to
tutor a sixth grader, Sam. She's all excited, because it's her first tutoring
job. But she's very worried, too, because she has never tutored before.
She has come to you for advice. You had just read somewhere that the most
important concerns in any instruction are "what to teach" and "how to teach
it". With this in mind, what would you advise Jennifer to do first?
Think about it, and jot your answer below, before you read on!
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this case study.)
Let's assume that Jennifer has already found out that Sam is supposed
to learn the names of the first seven Presidents of the United States.
So let's turn our attention to "how to teach it". Based on the need to
create strong links within memory, what would you say is the most important
instructional strategy you could suggest to your friend?
Think about it, and jot your answer below, before you read on!
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But what should Jennifer be doing while Sam is stating them? Should
she just sit there, or should she do something?
What do you think she should do? Jot your answer below, before you
read on!
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in order to see the author's opinion.)
Now, picture Jennifer asking Sam to name the Presidents. If he only
knows who the first one is (George Washington), would you start by asking
him to name all of them? That would be silly. So what other guideline should
you give Jennifer? If this all seems obvious, it shows you have already
picked up an intuitive understanding of some of the most basic priniciples
of instruction from your observations or studies. Congratulations! But
beware that we are quickly moving on to less obvious principles.
Jot your answer below, before you read on!
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Now let's assume that Sam needs to learn the names of all the Presidents
of the United States instead of just seven. Forty Presidents is a lot to
learn. Would you present all 40 at once and then elicit practice on all
40 at once?
Think of what you would recommend to make it easier for him to learn
all those names, and jot your answer below, before you read on!
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in order to see the author's opinion.)
Let's assume the names are difficult for Sam. What else can you recommend
to help him remember the names in the first chunk?
Keep in mind the need to strengthen those links, and jot your answer
below, before you read on!
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opinion in order to see the author's opinion.)
However, aside from motivational strategies such as games to increase
the learner's effort to memorize the information, there is another feature
which can be even more powerful and efficient than repetition to facilitate
memorization.
Try to think of what it is, and write your answer below, before you
read on!
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opinion in order to see the author's opinion.)
Finally, what if Sam gets stuck on one of his practice trials? He can't
remember the next name. You certainly don't want to just sit there and
watch him suffer. What would you suggest that Jennifer do in such situations?
Write your answer below, before you read on!
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in order to see the author's opinion.)
But what about motivation? It is hard to remember all those names, and
Sam is bound to have trouble at first. What can Jennifer do to keep him
from getting discouraged—to keep his attitude positive and his concentration
high? High motivation translates into high effort, and that means quicker
and better learning. What would you recommend to Jennifer?
Write your answer below, before you read on!
(Before continuing to read, you must submit your opinion
in order to see the author's opinion.)
Finally, there is a good chance that by the time Jennifer has finished
teaching the last chunk of names, Sam will have difficulty recalling all
the previous names. Hence, periodic review is important to include
in your instruction. Often it is wise to review items from the first chunk
right after the second chunk is mastered, to review items from the first
two chunks right after the third chunk is mastered, and so on.
In summary, the first task of an instructional developer is to decide
what to teach (if anything!). This requires that a needs analysis
(entailing a goals analysis and a learner analysis) be performed
(Kaufman, 1979). If you are teaching a group of learners, sampling and
interviews or testing would be most reliable to find out the minimum level
of entering knowledge relevant to the goals. But interviewing a qualified
teacher is a more cost-effective alternative.
In summary, it appears that once you have decided what needs to be
taught, you should plan to include three "routine tactics" in
all instruction on invariant tasks:
